genre with the publication of his Essais. Montaigne's work is a
collection of over 100 musings on a variety of subjects, including "Of
Idleness", "Of Liars", "Of Fear", "Of Friendship", and "Of Cannibals".
After Montaigne, hundreds of collections of essays appeared by noted
writers such as Francis Bacon, John Dryden, Alexander Pope, Joseph
Addison, and Samuel Johnson. Although some writers published formal
essays that might be better termed "treatises", the quintessential
essay was informal, personal and, above all, entertaining. In 1741
Hume published his Essays, Moral and Political in which he consciously
followed the tried and true model of informal essay writing. Part of
Hume's motivation for producing a collection of informal essays stems
from the poor public reception of his more formally written Treatise
of Human Nature (1739-1740). In his essay "Of Essay Writing", Hume
expresses his hope that his own collection of essays would be of
interest both to learned people and conversational people. In the
opening section of his first Enquiry (1748, first titled Philosophical
Essays), Hume argues that essays are a good forum for discussing
common life philosophy – in contrast to abstract philosophy. From 1741
until his death, Hume continually added to his collection of essays,
which, from various editions, totaled 47 different compositions. As
time when on, Hume's essay writing became more formal, both in style
and content, and Hume even removed some of the earlier essays that he
thought were too frivolous. The subjects of Hume's essays are as
diverse as those by Montaigne or Addison. However, the bulk of Hume's
essays fall into one of three distinct subject groups: aesthetic
theory, political theory, and economic theory.
1. Hume's Place in Early Aesthetic, Political, and Economic Theory
To better understand Hume's contributions to aesthetic, political, and
economic theory, it is helpful to examine the context in which Hume
developed his views. Concerning aesthetic theory, several of Hume's
essays discuss issues such as taste, cultural refinement, oratorical
eloquence, essay writing, and aesthetic pleasure derived from artistic
depictions of tragedy. During the 18th century, most of these issues
were addressed in books on rhetoric, which laid out the principles of
good writing and good speaking. Hume's principal contribution in this
arena concerns his theory of taste. In 18th century discussions, the
term "taste" referred to a mental faculty that enables people to
appreciate and critically judge aesthetic objects. Theorists on this
topic described both the instinctive mental mechanisms of this
faculty, and how we refine our judgments of taste through experience.
The expression "delicacy of taste", which Hume often uses, refers to a
refinement of this faculty, which gives a person a greater and more
subtle range of experiences. In An Inquiry into the Original of our
Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725), Francis Hutcheson described the
taste mechanism as an internal sense of beauty that produces pleasure
when we are presented with objects "in which there is uniformity
amidst variety." For Hutcheson, this includes objects in nature,
artistic representations, and even mathematical theorems.
Hume's essay "Of the Standard of Taste" appeared in 1757. Although
paralleling Hutcheson's account, Hume parts company with Hutcheson in
two important ways. First, Hume does not discuss the psychological
details of the taste mechanism, and Hume even leaves it open as to
whether the sense of taste is an internal or external sense. Second,
unlike Hutcheson who offers a criterion of beauty, namely, form of
purposeness, Hume does not specify any criterion. Shortly after the
appearance of Hume's essay, Alexander Gerard published his Essay on
Taste (1759). In this work Gerard presents a detailed account of the
different kinds of internal senses, and also distinguishes between
several types of taste senses. At the close of the century, in his
Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790), Archibald Alison
developed an even more detailed psychological account of the various
mental mechanisms involved in taste. Hume's theory stands in contrast
to both Gerard's and Allison's insofar as Hume minimises reliance on
psychological faculties and mechanisms.
As to political theory, Hume's essays on this subject deal with
popular political controversies of the time, particularly involving
party disputes between Whigs and Tories. The Whig and Tory parties of
England date from 1679 when the House of Commons tried to exclude the
Roman Catholic duke of York (later James II) from succeeding to
throne, currently held by the duke's older brother Charles II. Charles
supported his younger brother as successor, which ultimately required
Charles to dissolve Parliament in 1681. During this time, Scottish
Presbyterian rebels formed the Whig party in opposition to Charles.
The Tory party, by contrast, emerged as a party that gave loyal
support to the King. In 1685, Charles died and his brother succeeded
to the throne as James II. After advocating several pro-Catholic
policies, the Whig party instigated James's overthrow in the Glorious
Revolution of 1688. In later years the Whigs justified the revolution
by appealing to Locke's theory that people can remove political
authorities when those authorities fail to protect the rights of the
people. Accordingly, the newly empowered Whig party supported
constitutional government. Their Tory counterparts ultimately accepted
much of the Whig's constitutionalist position and, after 1714, the
Tories declined as a political force.
In Hume's political essays, two consistent themes emerge. First, in
securing peace, a monarchy with strong authority is probably better
than a pure republic. Consequently, Hume sides with the Tories, given
their traditional support of the monarchy. Except in extreme cases,
Hume opposes the Lockean argument offered by Whigs that justifies
overthrowing political authorities. Hume does note, though, that
monarchies and republics each have their strong points. Monarchies
encourage the arts, and republics encourage science and trade. Hume
also appreciates the mixed form of government within Great Britain,
which fosters liberty of the press. The second theme in Hume's
political essays is that revolutions and civil wars principally arise
from zealousness within party factions. Political moderation, he
argues, is the best antidote to potentially ruinous party conflict.
Turning finally to economic theory, in ancient and medieval writings,
economics was not an isolated discipline, but part of a larger moral,
religious, and political quest to optimally organise society. For
example, in Book I of the Politics, Aristotle discusses the art of
acquiring wealth, which he argues is a necessary part of households;
and households, for Aristotle, comprise the state. Views about
economics changed during the Renaissance when individual autonomous
states actively sought to increase their wealth. The mercantile system
emerged based on the concept of the "balance of trade", the view that
a country increases its wealth by increasing the quantity of gold and
silver in that country. Three means were commonly employed to this
end: (1) capture gold, silver and raw material from other countries
through colonisation; (2) discourage imports through tariffs and
monopolies, which keeps acquired gold and silver within one's
country's borders; and, (3) increase exports, which brings in money
from outside countries. In Great Britain, mercantile policies were
instituted through the Navigation Acts, which prohibited trade between
British colonies and foreign countries. These protectionist laws
ultimately led to the American revolution.
During the late 17th through mid 18th centuries, several writers
chiselled away at the central doctrines of mercantilism. The most
notable of these were a group of French economists known as
physiocrats — a term which means rule of nature as opposed to human
rule. In opposition to mercantilists who held that wealth was gold,
the physiocrats argued that all economic production was based on sound
agriculture. Also, contrary to the mercantilists' protectionist
policies, the physiocrats believed that a country's economy would
naturally and automatically attain optimal results when people do not
interfere with its operation. This is the basis of the term
laissez-faire, which means "let it be". This aspect of the physiocrats
directly influenced Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations (1776). A
leading proponent of the physiocrat school was Anne Robert Jacques
Turgot (1727-1781) who was minister of finance in France from
1774-1776, during which time he unsuccessfully tried to institute
physiocratic reforms. Hume and Turgot were friends and the two
frequently corresponded on economic issues in the late 1760s.
In 1752, Hume published a series of economic essays in his Political
Discourses, which, like the writing of the physiocrats, makes a
decisive turn away from mercantilist theory. The most famous of Hume's
anti-mercantilist arguments is now called Hume's gold-flow theory.
Contrary to mercantilists who advocated locking up money in one's home
country, Hume argued that increased money in one country automatically
disperses to other countries. Suppose, for example, that Great Britain
receives an influx of new money. This new money will drive up prices
of labour and domestic products in Great Britain. Products in foreign
countries, then, will be cheaper than in Great Britain; Britain, then,
will import these products, thereby sending new money to foreign
countries. Hume compares this reshuffling of wealth to the level of
fluids in interconnected chambers: if I add fluid to one chamber,
then, under the weight of gravity, this will disperse to the others
until the level is the same in all chambers. A similar phenomenon will
occur if we lose money in our home country by purchasing imports from
foreign countries. As the quantity of money decreases in our home
country, this will drive down the prices of labour and domestic
products. Our products, then, will be cheaper than foreign products,
and we will gain money through exports. On the fluid analogy, by
removing fluid from one chamber, more fluid is drawn in from
surrounding chambers.
In 1755 a posthumously published work appeared by Irishman Richard
Cantillion (1680-1734), titled Essai sur la Nature du Commerce. Though
explained less precisely, Cantillion offered a gold-flow theory
similar to Hume's. In fact, some of Cantillions observations were so
similar to Hume's that, in a review of Cantillion's work – apparently
unaware of Cantillion's death date – William Kenrick writes that
Cantillon frequently "quotes Mr. Hume in justification of his own
sentiments; but does not appear always to comprehend the arguments, or
see clearly into the design of that masterly writer." Although Adam
Smith cites Cantillion in the Wealth of Nations (1776), Cantillion's
work was largely forgotten until the late 19th century. Consequently
it is Hume's name that is associated with the gold-flow theory.
2. Summary of the Essays
The chronology behind Hume's collected essays is complex and only a
general outline can be given here. The essays were published in
different volumes during a period of over 35 years. The original
sources of the published essays are these:
* Essays, Moral and Political (abbr. EMP)
o Vol. 1 first edition (1741)
o Vol. 1 second edition (1742)
o Vol. 2 first edition (1742)
o Combined third edition (1748)
o Combined fourth edition (1753, in Essays and Treatises on
Several Subjects)
* Political Discourses (abbr. PD) First edition (1752)
o Second edition (1752)
o Second edition (1753, in Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects)
o Third edition (1754)
o Third edition (1754, in Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects)
* Four Dissertations (abbr. FD)
o Only edition (1757)
* Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary (abbr. EMPL; in Essays
and Treatises on Several Subjects)
o Eight editions: 1758, 1760, 1764, 1767, 1768, 1770, 1772, 1777
In 1758 Hume compiled his essays into a two-part collection titled
Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary. Part I includes the essays
from Essays, Moral and Political, plus two essays from Four
Dissertations. The contents of this part largely covers political and
aesthetic issues. Part II includes the essays from Political
Discourses, most of which develop economic themes. The total two-part
collection appeared within a larger collection of Hume's writings
titled Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects. Below is a brief
description of the content and bibliographical history of the Essays,
Moral, Political, and Literary.
Part 1
1. Of the Delicacy of Taste and Passion. This first appeared as essay
1 in EMP (Vol. 1, 1741). In this essay Hume distinguishes between (1)
delicacy of passion, which makes people sensitive to life's joys and
sorrows, and (2) delicacy of taste, which makes people sensitive to
the arts. Hume argues that delicacy of taste helps improve delicacy of
passion.2. Of the Liberty of the Press. This first appeared as essay 2
in EMP (Vol. 1, 1741). In this essay Hume argues that the liberty of
the press in Great Britain owes to its mixed form of government "which
is neither wholly monarchical, nor wholly republican."
3. That Politics may be reduced to a Science. This first appeared as
essay 4 in EMP (Vol. 1, 1741). In this essay Hume argues that there is
a real difference between different forms of government and that "an
hereditary prince, a nobility without vassals, and a people voting by
their representatives, form the best MONARCHY, ARISTOCRACY and
DEMOCRACY." Hume discourages political zeal and recommends moderation
when a constitution is fundamentally good.
4. Of the First Principles of Government. This first appeared as essay
5 in EMP (Vol. 1, 1741). In this essay Hume argues that governments
are founded primarily on (1) opinion concerning public interest, and
(2) opinion concerning rights to power and property. Other
foundational principles are self-interest concerning rewards, fear of
a tyrant's fury, and affection for a sovereign's wisdom and virtue.
5. Of the Origin of Government. This first appeared as essay 5 in EMPL
(1777). In this essay Hume argues that the aim of all government is to
maintain justice. We recognise the need for justice in securing peace,
but human weakness keeps us from always acting justly. We thus
institute a government and invent the duty of obedience. Although such
authority is essential to society, it is always balanced against
liberty.
6. Of the Independency of Parliament. This first appeared as essay 8
in EMP (Vol. 1, 1741). In this essay Hume argues that party loyalty
makes people despise their adversaries. Accordingly, government powers
should be divided with checks on each other. Hume notes that the
British Parliament has an imbalance of checks, since the House of
Lords requires support from the King to be effective. However, the
House of Commons does not exploit that weakness since "such an
usurpation would be contrary to the interest of the majority of its
members."
7. Whether the British Government inclines more to Absolute Monarchy,
or to a Republic. This first appeared as essay 9 in EMP (Vol. 1,
1741). In this essay Hume argues that the British government is moving
more towards absolute monarchy. Although absolute tyranny is bad, a
republic is worse since factions will divide it and civil war will
result. "This may teach us the lesson of moderation in all our
political controversies."
8. Of Parties in General. This first appeared as essay 10 in EMP (Vol.
1, 1741). In this essay Hume condemns the institution of political
parties since "factions subvert government [and] render laws
impotent". Factions are either (1) personal, based on friendship and
mere party loyalty, or (2) real, based on genuine differences of
interest, principle, or affection.
9. Of the Parties of Great Britain. This first appeared as essay 11 in
EMP (Vol. 1, 1741). In this essay Hume argues that the two main party
orientations in Great Britain are the court party and country party,
divided both in principle and in interest. According to Hume,
established clergy side with the court party, and dissenting clergy
with the country; the Round-heads sided with the country, the Cavalier
with the court. Tories and Whigs are harder to classify, especially
since the revolution.
10. Of Superstition and Enthusiasm. This first appeared as essay 12 in
EMP (Vol. 1, 1741). In this essay Hume argues that superstition and
enthusiasm (fanaticism) are the main sources of false religion. He
defends the views that (1) superstition gives rise to priests and
ceremonies, but enthusiasm does not; (2) enthusiastic religions are
more violent than superstitious ones; and, (3) "superstition is an
enemy to civil liberty, and enthusiasm a friend to it."
11. Of the Dignity or Meanness of Human Nature. This first appeared as
essay 14 in EMP (Vol. 1, 1741) under the title "Of the Dignity of
Human Nature" and renamed in EMPL (1770). In this essay Hume argues
that we are more inclined towards morality if we hold an optimistic
view of human nature rather than a pessimistic one. He believes that
many discussions of human nature err by drawing faulty comparisons
between humans and other species above or below us. Hume criticises
those who hold that all human actions are selfish.
12. Of Civil Liberty. This first appeared as essay 15 in EMP (Vol. 1,
1741) under the title "Of Liberty and Despotism" and renamed in EMPL
Part 1 (1758). In this essay Hume argues that arts and sciences
flourish under absolute governments, but commerce flourishes more in
free governments. Although all forms of government have recently
improved, Hume believes that monarchies have improved the most. Free
governments tend to degenerate because of excessive debts and taxes.
13. Of Eloquence. This first appeared as essay 2 in EMP (Vol. 2,
1742). In this essay Hume argues that ancient societies were superior
to modern societies in oratorical eloquence. Hume refutes commonly
offered reasons to explain the difference, such as the simplicity of
ancient laws, modern disdain for rhetorical tricks, and the severity
of ancient crimes. Hume concludes that modern orators should not mimic
the ancient rhetorical style, but stress philosophical argument as
they do. However, some modern style may be corrected.
14. Of the Rise and Progress of the Arts and Sciences. This first
appeared as essay 5 in EMP (Vol. 2, 1742). In this essay Hume argues
that the rise of arts and sciences is not a matter of chance but of
definitive causes. Hume observes four causes. First, arts and sciences
first arise only in free governments. Second, politeness and learning
spread through international commerce. Third, once established, a
republic is most favourable to sciences, and a civilised monarchy most
favourable to arts. Fourth, when arts and sciences decline in a
country, they seldom revive in that same country.
15. The Epicurean. This first appeared as essay 6 in EMP (Vol. 2,
1742). In this essay Hume poetically expresses the Epicurean view that
human happiness is found in pleasure.
16. The Stoic. This first appeared as essay 7 in EMP (Vol. 2, 1742).
In this essay Hume starkly expresses the Stoic view of natural order
and finding happiness through honest and hard work.
17. The Platonist. This first appeared as essay 8 in EMP (Vol. 2,
1742). In this essay Hume expresses the Platonist view that happiness
is found in the contemplation of the most perfect object.
18. The Sceptic. This first appeared as essay 9 in EMP (Vol. 2, 1742).
In this essay Hume expresses the Sceptical view that "no objects are,
in themselves, desirable or odious, valuable or despicable; but that
objects acquire these qualities from the particular character and
constitution of the mind, which surveys them." Philosophers assist in
establishing a larger context within which we may survey things.
19. Of Polygamy and Divorces. This first appeared as essay 10 in EMP
(Vol. 2, 1742). In this essay Hume argues against both polygamy and
divorce. Polygamy is bad since it undermines intimate friendship and
promotes inequality and jealousy. Although voluntary divorce allows us
to retain a sense of liberty, it is bad because of its affects on
children, the "deadly hatred" that erupts at the prospect of
separation, and the insecurity that it generates for each partner.
20. Of Simplicity and Refinement in Writing. This first appeared as
essay 11 in EMP (Vol. 2, 1742) under the title "Of Simplicity and
Refinement" and renamed in EMP (1748). In this essay Hume argues that
writing style should neither be too natural, as in common
conversation, nor too refined or ornamented. He notes that writers
have some latitude between these two extremes, and that no rule can
establish the best middle ground.
21. Of National Characters. This first appeared as essay 24 in EMP
(1748). In this essay Hume argues that the varying characteristics of
people in different countries owe principally to "moral causes" such
as governments, and very little to "physical causes" such as native
food and climate. He argues against physical causes by illustrating
that two specific societies in the same geographical conditions may
have highly diverse characteristics. Also, two societies in vastly
different geographical conditions may have similar characteristics. In
the 1753 edition, Hume included a controversial note arguing that
blacks are inferior to whites.
22. Of Tragedy. This first appeared as dissertation 3 in FD (1757),
and later included as essay 25 of EMPL Part 1 (1758). In this essay
Hume discusses the psychological reasons why we feel pleasure when
observing artistic depictions of tragic events. Hume argues that "the
energy of expression, the power of numbers, and the charm of
imitation" convey the sense of pleasure. Hume particularly stresses
the technical artistry involved when an artistic work imitates the
original.
23. Of the Standard of Taste. This first appeared as dissertation 4 in
FD (1757), and later included as essay 26 of EMPL Part 1 (1758). In
this essay Hume argues that there is a uniform sense of artistic
judgment in human nature, similar to our uniform sense of moral
judgment. Specific objects consistently trigger feelings of beauty
within us, as our human nature dictates. Just as we can refine our
external senses such as our palate, we can also refine our sense of
artistic beauty and thus cultivate a delicacy of taste. In spite of
this uniform standard of taste, two factors create some difference in
our judgments: "the one is the different humours of particular men;
the other, the particular manners and opinions of our age and
country."
Part 2
1. Of Commerce. This first appeared as essay 1 in PD (1752). This
essay is an introduction to the essays that follow. Hume argues that a
country's happiness and military strength both depend on strong
industry. In time of peace excess workers can produce luxuries and
improve the arts, and thus increase a country's happiness. In time of
war, excess workers can serve in the military. Hume argues further
that foreign trade also increases happiness and strengthens the
military. Foreign trade acquaints people with the pleasures of foreign
luxuries and thus raises the quality of life. Foreign trade also
increases industry, which strengthens the labour pool for possible use
in the military. 2. Of Refinement in the Arts. This first appeared
as essay 2 in PD (1752) under the title "Of Luxury" and renamed in
EMPL Part 2 (1760). In this essay Hume argues that private and public
happiness increases with the growth of cultural refinement in the arts
and sciences. Hume also notes that when people are lazy and
indifferent to other people, then luxury is harmful to political
society.3. Of Money. This first appeared as essay 3 in PD (1752). In
this essay Hume argues that the wealth of a country consists of its
labour and commodities, not in the quantity of its gold or silver. For
Hume, an increase or decrease of money in a country does not increase
or decrease the country's wealth. As the quantity of money increases
or decreases, the prices of both labour and products increase and
decrease proportionally. However, Hume argues that the overall economy
suffers when prices increase because of an increase in money; for,
when prices are higher, domestic industries cannot compete with
cheaper foreign labour and products. For this reason, Hume sees a
danger in paper credit; for, when banks issue credit, this increases
the quantity of money in a country, which in turn raises prices, which
in turn again makes domestic products less competitive.
4. Of Interest. This first appeared as essay 4 in PD (1752). In this
essay Hume argues against the mercantilist view that an increase of
money in a country will result in lower interest. Hume notes again
that increased money will only result in higher labour and commodity
prices. For Hume, interest rates change based on three factors: the
demand for borrowing, the amount of money brought together to supply
borrowers, and the high or low profits arising from commerce.
5. Of the Balance of Trade. This first appeared as essay 5 in PD
(1752). In this essay Hume argues against the mercantilist fear of
losing gold through buying foreign imports. Instead, he proposes what
is now known as Hume's gold-flow theory: the balance of trade between
countries will ultimately attain equilibrium, and that a country
cannot permanently lose its wealth by purchasing too many foreign
imports. Hume's reasoning is that, if a country loses money, then
prices will drop within that country; this, in turn will make the
country's exports more competitive and enable it to bring in new money
from foreign countries. This is similar to how fluids in
interconnected chambers will always remain at the same level: when
fluid is removed from one chamber, it will draw on the fluids in other
chambers. For Hume, if we "suppose four-fifths of all the money in
Great Britain to be annihilated in one night," then prices would drop,
exports would increase, and new money for their purchase would enter
the country.
6. Of the Jealousy of Trade. This first appeared as essay 6 in EMPL
(1760). In this essay Hume argues against the mercantilist fear that
national wealth is hurt when foreign neighbours prosper. For Hume, a
nation will typically prosper only when its neighbouring countries do
too. For, a nation's export industry will decline unless its foreign
neighbour has enough money to purchase the exports.
7. Of the Balance of Power. This first appeared as essay 6 in PD
(1752). In this essay Hume argues that the notion of a balance of
power among foreign governments is not a modern invention but
practised in ancient times.
8. Of Taxes. This first appeared as essay 7 in PD (1752). In this
essay Hume argues that, to an extent, workers can cover increased
taxes by increasing their labour, rather than by receiving an increase
to their wages. This is parallel to situations in which workers in
some countries increase their labour to overcome natural disadvantages
such as harsh climate. Hume argues that it is best to tax luxury
items, rather than necessities, since the purchase of luxuries is to
some extent voluntary.
9. Of Public Credit. This first appeared as essay 8 in PD (1752). In
this essay Hume describes several unfavourable economic consequences
of Britain's national debt, and he warns of a forthcoming national
bankruptcy. The worse consequence is that perhaps at some time the
interests of millions of creditors may be sacrificed for the benefit
of a smaller number of debtors. But even if disaster strikes, Hume
argues that people will forget this tragedy and once again engage in
risky credit practices.
10. Of some Remarkable Customs. This first appeared as essay 9 in PD
(1752). In this essay Hume discusses three peculiar political
practices. First, as a rule, legislators must be free to discuss and
prose any law, without fear of punishment. However, in ancient Athens,
the judiciary could punish legislators if the judiciary determined
that the enacted law was unjust. Second, as a rule, a government
cannot have two legislative bodies with equal power, with no checks on
each other. However, Roman legislature had two legislative bodies of
this sort. Third, as a rule, laws enacted by a magistrate are
friendlier to liberty than laws enacted through violence. However, an
exception to this is the Royally-backed practice in Great Britain of
forcefully conscripting sailors; more liberty would in fact result
from a violent usurpation of this law.
11. Of the Populousness of Ancient Nations. This first appeared as
essay 10 in PD (1752) and is the longest of Hume's essays. Contrary to
the views of Isaac Vossius, Montesquieu and others, Hume argues that
the world is more populated in modern times than it was in ancient.
Hume argues that the widespread practice of slavery in the ancient
world curbed population growth. Wars were frequent and especially
devastating to population. Agriculture in the ancient world was
primitive and could not support a great population. Hume examines the
population numbers given by various ancient historians and argues that
some especially high figures are inaccurate exaggerations.
12. Of the Original Contract. This first appeared as essay 25 in EMP
(1748) and was moved to EMPL Part 2 (1758). In this essay Hume
discusses the philosophical differences between the Tory and Whig
parties as concerns the origin of government. Hume briefly notes and
agrees with the Tory argument for political authority from divine
right. Against the Whig argument for political authority from the
original contract, Hume argues that when we examine revolutions that
establish governments, we find violence, and not contractual
agreement. In fact, people are in least agreement when forming of new
governments. Hume also argues that moral duties are either natural
(based on instinct) or artificial (based on the necessities of
society). Political allegiance is artificial and ultimately based on
"the general interests or necessities of society".
13. Of Passive Obedience. This first appeared as essay 26 in EMP
(1748) and moved to EMPL Part 2 (1758). In this essay Hume discusses
the practical differences between the Tory and Whig parties as
concerns the doctrine of passive obedience, that is, the unlawfulness
of armed uprising against the King's authority. Contrary to the
Tories, Hume argues that resistance is justified in extraordinary
emergencies "when the public is in the highest danger, from violence
and tyranny". However, Hume opposes the Whig view that resistance is
justified as a check to the power given to the sovereign in the
British constitution.
14. Of the Coalition of Parties. This first appeared as essay 14 in
EMPL (1760). In this essay Hume discusses the historical issues that
led to the differences between the Whig and Tory parties, particularly
at the outbreak of the British civil war. Hume argues that the popular
party's position was better founded than the Royalist party's
position, but that the Royalist position had law on its side. Hume
argues that political moderation is now required to bring coalition to
the Whig and Tory parties.
15. Of the Protestant Succession. This first appeared as essay 11 in
PD (1752). In 1701 the English Parliament passed the Act of
Settlement, which prevented the continuation of the Roman Catholic
Stuart dynasty in the line of royal succession, and established
instead the Protestant Hanover dynasty. The Act specified that the
monarch must belong to the Anglican Church. In this essay Hume lists
the advantages and disadvantages of the shift to the Protestant
monarchy that must have weighed in the minds of the Parliamentarians
prior to the Act. Hume concludes that, on balance, the best choice was
that in favour of the Protestant Hanover dynasty. This essay was
originally intended for inclusion in the 1748 edition of Essays, Moral
and Political, but was suppressed at the judgment of his friend
Charles Erskine. The essay was especially controversial in view of
recent political events. In 1745 Scottish Jacobites launched a
rebellion hoping to restore the Stuart family by supporting the Young
Pretender, Charles Edward Stuart. The rebellion failed, and several
Scottish Jacobites were imprisoned or executed.
16. Idea of a Perfect Commonwealth. This first appeared as essay 12 in
PD (1752). In this essay Hume presents his conception of the most
ideal plan of government, modelled after the Dutch government. Hume
divides the country into 100 counties, and each county into 100
parishes. People in each parish elect a representative for their
county. These representatives then elect magistrates and senators from
their county to be the whole executive power of the commonwealth in
the capital. The senators elect magistrates to cover specific tasks,
such as councils of religion and learning, of trade, and of laws. Hume
describes voting procedures and re-election policies. Military service
is voluntary and all crimes are tried in the county by magistrates and
a jury. Hume describes policies that ensure that party factions do not
disrupt unity.
Removed Essays
1. Of Essay Writing. This first appeared as essay 1 in EMP (Vol. 2,
1742) and was removed in EMP (1748). In a letter to Charles Erskine
(February 13, 1748) Hume writes that he removed this and the next two
essays for being "frivolous & finical". In this essay Hume argues that
the intellectual world of people is divided between those of learning
and those of conversation. Hume expresses hope that his Essays will
help bridge the gap.2. Of Moral Prejudices. This first appeared as
essay 3 in EMP (Vol. 2, 1742) and was removed in EMP (1748). In this
essay Hume argues against those that ridicule accepted moral and
social standards. Hume advises "not to depart too far from the
receiv'd Maxims of Conduct and Behaviour, by a refin'd Search after
Happiness or Perfection."
3. Of the Middle Station of Life. This first appeared as essay 4 in
EMP (Vol. 2, 1742) and was removed in EMP (1748). In this essay Hume
argues that the best position in life is a middle rank, since the rich
are too immersed in pleasure and the poor struggle for necessities.
The middle position provides the best opportunity to acquire virtue,
wisdom, and happiness.
4. Of Impudence and Modesty. This first appeared as essay 3 in EMP
(Vol. 1, 1741) and was removed in EMPL (1764). In this essay Hume
argues that, although impudence is a vice, it often has the effects of
being a virtue insofar as it increases one's prosperity. Unlike other
vices, which are easy to acquire, true impudence is hard to acquire.
5. Of Love and Marriage. This first appeared as essay 6 in EMP (Vol.
1, 1741) and was removed in EMPL (1764). Hume notes in a letter to
Adam Smith (September 24, 1752) his desire to remove this and the next
essay in the 1753 edition for being "too frivolous for the rest";
however, Hume's bookseller, Andrew Millar, protested. In this essay
Hume points out the fundamental source of tension in marriage: desire
for security vs. desire for immediate pleasure. Hume makes his point
by extending Aristophanes' allegory in Plato's Symposium.
6. Of the Study of History. This first appeared as essay 7 in EMP
(Vol. 1, 1741) and was removed in EMPL (1764). In this essay Hume
explains some advantages of studying history. It offers entertainment
by transporting us to a remote age; it makes us sophisticated; it
extends our limited experience to all past ages. Also, the historian
invariably emphasises virtue and denounces vice.
7. Of Avarice. This first appeared as essay 13 in EMP (Vol. 1, 1741)
and was removed in EMPL (1770). In this essay Hume argues that,
although writers commonly exaggerate depictions of vices in people,
avarice is a vice that is difficult to exaggerate. Avarice seems to be
restricted to old men with cold tempers. Because this vice is
difficult to reverse, Hume thinks that it is best criticised through
satire, rather than serious admonishing.
8. A Character of Sir Robert Walpole. This first appeared as essay 12
in EMP (Vol. 2, 1742); in EMP (1748) the essay was moved to a note in
"That Politics may be reduced to a Science", and in EMPL (1770) this
note was entirely removed. In this essay Hume argues that most
depictions of Prime Minister Robert Walpole are biased; accordingly,
Hume presents a balanced list of his virtues and vices. He concludes
noting, "As I am a man, I love him; as I am a scholar, I hate him; as
I am a Briton, I calmly wish his fall."
3. Overview of the Early Responses
Hume began composing his first essays around 1739 and sent several
essays to Henry Home Lord Kames for comments. The first volume of
Hume's Essays, Moral and Political appeared in 1741, and Hume notes in
his autobiography that "the work was favourably received, and soon
made me entirely forget my former disappointment"(that is, the failure
of the Treatise). Shortly after Volume 1 appeared, an unidentified
respondent sent Hume a list of 29 remarks on various essays in the
volume. Hume incorporated the bulk of the recommendations into later
editions of his Essays. Previously overlooked by Hume scholars, a
transcription of the manuscript appears in print here for the first
time. In 1742 Robert Walpole resigned as British Prime Minister, and
Hume's essay "A Character of Sir Robert Walpole" was reprinted in
various British newspapers. In one of these papers the editor posed
several questions that Hume's essay did not address. Hume responded in
the Scots Magazine with answers to these questions. In a letter to
Henry Home around this time, Hume notes the success of his Essays:
The Essays are all sold in London; as I am inform'd by two Letters
from English Gentlemen of my Acquaintaince. There is a Demand for
them; & as one of them tells me, Innys the great Bookseller in Paul's
Church Yard wonders there is not a new Edition, for that he cannot
find Copies for his Customers. I am also told that Dr Butler has every
where recommended them. So that I hope they will have some Success.
[Hume to Kames, June 13, 1742]In 1748 Hume published the third edition
of his Essays; he comments in a letter on his reasons for discarding
some of the earlier essays:
You must know, that Andrew Millar is printing a new Edition of certain
Essays, that have been ascrib'd to me; and as I threw out some, that
seem'd frivolous & finical, I was resolv'd to supply their Place by
others, that shou'd be more instructive. [Hume to Charles Erskine,
February 13, 1748]It appears that for almost 10 years no responses to
Hume's Essays were published. Around 1750 Hume became more generally
known, largely from controversy surrounding "Of Miracles" in his
Philosophical Essays (1748). Perhaps because of this fame, Hume's
Essays received more critical attention. In 1751 John Brown criticised
a minor point in Hume's essay "Of the Dignity or Meanness of Human
Nature". The next year, in preparing a new edition of the Essays, Hume
wrote to Adam Smith soliciting comments. Also that year, Hume's
Political Discourses appeared, which he describes in his autobiography
as "the only work of mine that was successful on the first
publication. It was well received abroad and at home." The work was
favourably reviewed in the Monthly Review (1752), and several essays
in that work quickly became the subject of discussion. Hume's essay
"Of the Populousness of Ancient Nations" drew much attention for its
view that the ancient world was less populated than the modern world.
In 1753 Hume's friend Robert Wallace argued for the opposite view, and
presented a 150 page critique of Hume's argument. Marquis de Mirabeau
also criticised Hume's position (1755). Adam Ferguson discussed a
minor point in the essay (1767), and Marquis de Chastellux defended
Hume's position against Wallace (1772). Although agreeing with Hume's
conclusion, Thomas Malthus criticised Hume's method of analysing the
issue (1798).
Several writers discussed Hume's economic essays in detail, especially
Hume's essays "Of Money" and "Of the Balance of Trade". In 1750 Hume
received a long critical letter on manuscripts of these essays from
James Oswald of Dunnikier. Published responses were by Robert Wallace
(1758), James Steuart-Denham (1767), Josiah Tucker (1774), and Adam
Smith (1776). Discussions on Hume's economic theories continued in the
early 19th century by John Weatley (1803, 1807), David Ricardo (1815),
and Dugald Stewart (1855). Hume's essay "Of National Characters" also
drew attention. Hume's attack on the clergy in that essay was
criticised by Alexander Gerard (1760), Robert Wallace, and John
Ogilvie (1783). James Beattie (1770) and François Xavier Swediauer
(1786) attacked Hume's statement in that essay about the inferiority
of Blacks. William Godwin (1793) drew heavily on Hume's examples in
"Of National Characters".
In 1757 Hume's Four Dissertations appeared, which contained two essays
on aesthetic theory. In the reviews of this work, the aesthetic essays
were favourably received. For example, the Literary Magazine says
concerning "Of Tragedy" that "What the author adds from himself is
very beautiful" and that "Mr. Hume's fourth essay concerning the
standard of taste, is very elegant and entertaining" (1757, Vol. 2).
Richard Hurd responded to "Of Tragedy" in 1757, although the
definitive critique of that essay appeared twenty years later in
George Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776). Dugald Stewart also
discussed the essay (1810). Alexander Gerard (1780) critically
discussed Hume's essay "Of the Standard of Taste".
By the middle of the 19th century, writers in aesthetic, political,
and economic theory no longer drew from Hume as they did earlier. From
then on, discussions of Hume's views principally appeared in
historical surveys, such as those by Leslie Stephen (1876) and John
Kells Ingram (1888).
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